Abstract

Early childhood experiences, including early childhood education, have profound short and long-term effects on children, families and communities. Early childhood education can improve outcomes for participating children and families. In the short term, this occurs through more support for child development and more opportunities for parents to work, pursue vocational training, or do voluntary work. Long-term outcomes for children can include attainment of higher levels of education, more employment opportunities and higher incomes, more stable relationships and reduced crime and welfare use. These benefits only result from participation in quality early childhood education. Experiencing poor-quality early childhood education can have negative effects on children. Quality is a multi-faceted concept that describes those inputs that cause positive outcomes. It is most likely to occur when early childhood education services connect families with staff who are adequately qualified and view themselves as professionals, and who work in settings enjoying good governance and management. Quality in New Zealand early childhood education services is generally good, but there
is significant variance. It is essential that we continue to push for a more uniformly high baseline of quality in early childhood education. We recommend that quality continues to be a goal of early childhood education policy, and we make some structural recommendations around workforce, ratios and group size. We also recommend support for on-going research and sector consultation about these issues, especially for younger children and those with special education needs. We support the Office of the Children’s Commissioner’s recent recommendations regarding ratios and group size but consider them medium-term targets. The cost of these changes depends on the implementation of our new funding system, and they could be fiscally neutral.

Recommendations

The ECE Taskforce recommends:

1. regulation for a minimum of 80% of all early childhood education staff in teacher-led, centre-based early childhood education services as registered teachers, and that the remaining 20% of staff may include staff in study, or staff with other relevant expertise such as health professionals or staff with fluency in languages other than English

2. establishment of incentives for teacher-led, centre-based services to increase their percentage of teaching staff qualified and registered as early childhood education teachers up to 100%

3. regulation for a ratio of one adult to four children for children under two years old and of one adult to ten children for children aged three to six years old attending licensed early childhood education

4. group consisting of officials and sector representatives be established to provide advice on early childhood education for under two-year-olds and children with special educational needs that takes account of emerging research

5. officials, in consultation with the sector, investigate the benefits for children of reducing maximum group sizes, both for under and over two-year-olds; the comparative cost-effectiveness of any proposed changes to current regulations; and the feasibility of requiring all services to report to parents on their effective group sizes

6. further funding is allocated for New Zealand-based research into the capacity of all currently funded early childhood education service types to provide high-quality early childhood education for all children, but particularly for under two-year-olds.

Introduction

Research and evidence from child development, neurobiology and human capital theory concur that experiences in early childhood can have long-term impacts. Brain development takes place over time, with later experiences and developments building on earlier ones[1]. Early attachments, or reciprocal relationships, are of great importance for healthy human development[2]. Early childhood education is capable of supporting all these determinants of better outcomes. A wide literature reviewing early childhood education shows that whether or not the early childhood education an individual experiences generates positive or negative outcomes, and the strengths of those outcomes, both depend largely on the characteristics of that early childhood education experience. This is often positioned as a discussion about quality early childhood education.

What is Quality?

‘Quality’ is a contested and culturally-specific term. A 2003 European report concluded that “definitions of quality and what should be measured depend on cultural values and wider understandings of childhood”[3]. However, the importance of quality is acknowledged throughout international research and policy. A recent New Zealand literature review on the outcomes of early childhood education states:

Good quality ECE is the key to achieving gains on all outcomes measured. Aspects of adult–child interaction and opportunities afforded by the environment are associated with greater gains for cognitive outcomes and learning dispositions, and with lower levels of antisocial/ worried behaviour. Aspects that are particularly important for outcomes are:

• the quality of staff–child interaction;
• the learning resources available;
• programmes that engage children; and
• a supportive environment for children to work together[4]

.

The Taskforce considers that a useful definition of quality in the New Zealand early childhood education context is as follows: “Quality early childhood education derives from the factors and processes that cause (i.e. are not merely correlated with) good outcomes for children who experience it.”
Quality early childhood education also includes sound governance and management practices that ensure an efficient and effective service is being provided from an operational business perspective. It drives key policies, funding and sector incentives, and performance monitoring to demonstrate their value, effectiveness and efficiency.

Process and structural quality factors

The elements, or factors, of quality listed above are of different types and can be further broken down. For example, the idea of quality adult–child interaction (‘process quality’) can be unpacked into items like:

• reciprocal and responsive relationships between adults and children
• adults who ‘listen to’ children (including infants) and respond to their cues
• adults and children engaging in sustained shared thinking
• adults scaffolding children’s learning
• adults recognising and affirming children’s culture, language and identity, and engaging with their parents and family.

A holistic curriculum that supports both cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes and is not overly focused on achievement of standardised ‘educational’ outcomes is also an important contributor to process quality[5]. Our national curriculum, Te Whāriki, is strongly linked to this holistic model. (See Essay 6: Enhancing ECE through Te Whāriki for more information on this topic).

Factors that support process quality are often termed ‘structural quality’ factors.
These include:

• those related to the educator and services such as:
  – a planned programme or curriculum
  – professional education (initial and ongoing)
  – job status, remuneration and conditions
  – low staff turnover
  – partnership with children’s homes and families
  – supportive governance and management structures
  – effective day to day operation of the service
• environmental characteristics such as:
  – small group sizes
  – low ratios of adults to children
  – peer harmony (among children)
  – appropriate physical surroundings/space
  – resources.

Structural quality factors are relatively easy to affect, although not without cost. They are therefore often the focus of policies. However, it is important to note that these are secondary factors; in other words, they are necessary but not sufficient conditions for process quality in early childhood education. The process quality, in turn, is what ensures good outcomes.

Relevant Policy Design Principles

This essay will address the policy design principles of:

• using government funds efficiently
• encouraging cultural diversity
• ensuring access for all
• encouraging sector collaboration, and
• promoting innovation across the sector.

Background

The situation now

Current early childhood education regulations support process quality by prescribing structural quality factors such as:

• a curriculum framework
• maximum ratios of adults to children (differentiated by age group and service type)
• maximum group sizes as related to the licence of the service. As the Minister of Education has announced that this will shortly change from 50 children to 150 children per licence[7], monitoring of an optimal group size within early childhood education settings will need to happen
• a minimum number of teachers with a prescribed qualification and funding
  incentives to exceed this minimum
• requirements concerning the physical environment.

A recent New Zealand report found that

“High quality early childhood education can make a lasting difference and act as a protective factor for children at risk. This points to the need for future policy to take account of the role of high quality early childhood education for under-two year olds as a unique area of education planning that can enhance children’s life chances”.[8]

However, a separate evaluation[9] has raised concerns about quality of early childhood education for under two-year-olds in some services. This is of concern and should be addressed. The Office of the Children’s Commissioner has also recently released a report into this issue[10] that we generally support.

Pathways to the Future – Ngā Huarahi Arataki: The ECE Strategic Plan

Pathways to the Future – Ngā Huarahi Arataki: the ECE Strategic Plan has been in place since 2002 and has supported substantial growth and strength in the quality of the early childhood education sector since that date. The sector has made significant gains through it, and New Zealand now has a higher quality system and high participation. Following the drive towards professionalisation of the early childhood education workforce that the Plan enabled, the sector has reached a certain level of maturity. In our view, it is now time for the sector to step up and out, to start providing its own sense of leadership and direction. We recognise that Government still needs a coherent change and development strategy for the sector over the next ten years, and we set out a proposed strategy in our report.

Our youngest citizens in ECE

There is steadily increasing demand for early childhood education for all age groups – up 17.5% from 2000 to 2009, but the fastest growth rates over that period have been for oneyear-olds (49.3%) and under one-year-olds (40.0%)[11]. While the number of children under one in early childhood education is still comparatively small (around 8,000), enrolment of this group seems likely to continue being one of the highest growth areas, assuming the absence of substantial changes to parental leave or other policies. This trend calls for government action around quality in order to provide for the best service for these babies and their families. This is because the architecture of the brain starts to form before birth and changes very rapidly in the first few years of life, fuelled by appropriate sensory input and stable, responsive relationships.

Education and care of children under the age of two has expanded rapidly in the past 8 years as women’s workforce participation has expanded and the age of parents has risen. At the same time there has been a raft of studies showing the critical importance of relationships in the earliest years of life on later brain development, self management and social functioning. In a regulatory environment where only 50% of teachers must be qualified across the ECE service, many services continue to assign their unqualified staff to the care of babies and at ratios of one caregiver to five babies. This is deeply concerning to our members who consider that children’s future development and learning are likely to be compromised in such contexts.
Submission to the ECE Taskforce from Te Tari Puna Ora o Aotearoa/New Zealand Childcare Association

The brain is more plastic during the first few years than it ever will be again, so the quality of infants’ and toddlers’ early experiences, both at home and in early childhood education, should be high if children are to achieve their potential. In addition, research suggests that ‘toxic stress’ can result from the exposure of under two-year-olds to low-quality early childhood education. Continuously high levels of the stress hormone, cortisol, which are a response to ongoing stress, are associated with permanent negative brain changes which have a long-term negative impact on the immune system, cognitive functioning and emotional well-being[12].

Figure 1: Sensitive periods in early brain development[13]

We note the need for strong New Zealand research in this area to provide the evidence required for policy-making in the best interests of children. In some cases, information is simply not available. We therefore believe that providing information for this research should be a condition of funding receipt for early childhood education services. In addition, we believe that ongoing research on the care and education of under two-year- olds and children with special education needs is necessary. We further recommend that advice be provided to the Minister of Education that takes account of emerging research.

Consistent access to qualified teachers

As noted above, one of the most important indicators of structural quality of an early childhood education service is the availability of appropriately qualified staff. This is of particular importance when considering non-familial care –arrangements where parents or family members do not attend early childhood education alongside children.

Our understanding of the notion of quality leads us to have some concerns about the quality of education and care that can be provided by home-based service providers under current arrangements. While home-based services have some strong quality characteristics, such as small group sizes and low ratios, they do not have a qualified, professional workforce, which we regard to be essential to good outcomes from early childhood education. Instead, up to twenty educators without high-level early childhood education teaching qualifications are supervised by a single qualified teacher in the role of the network’s coordinator. We discuss this further in Essay 2: Reprioritising Government Expenditure.

Submissions Summary

High quality was considered important by the majority of submissions we received, with none recommending that the 80% teacher target be reduced and some saying their service would remain at 100% even though Government does not require it. A clear majority of submissions (79%) argued that the best investment for Government would include an increase of qualified staff at early childhood education centres.

Submissions also emphasised how important cultural responsiveness and cultural competence is to quality. In addition, a number of submissions expressed concern that not enough was done to address the delivery of poor quality services. A rigorous evaluation of all existing services was called for. The point was made that increased early childhood education participation was not the aim in and of itself, but rather attendance at quality early childhood education. Submitters were adamant that quality indicators such as initial teacher education, professional development, resources, salaries and teacher registration needed to be maintained.

Submitters made a number of suggestions to improve quality, including more robust auditing and licensing checks. (We discuss this issue in Essay 9: Improving Licensing Processes and Performance Reporting). Twenty-four submissions supported either lowering or maintaining current adult-to-child ratios. Better ratios for children under two were also supported by submissions, most supporting a ratio of 1:4 and some suggesting 1:3.

The Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs made an important submission that touched on quality among many other issues. In particular, it noted “the need to adopt a more systematic approach to improving quality”. It also noted the value of immersion early childhood education in Pasifika languages for promoting and protecting those languages, and the workforce challenges there often are in achieving this. We have recognised these needs in our proposals.

Proposed Policy Direction

The Taskforce’s recommendations support a state of continual improvement for the early childhood education sector. Supporting a broad concept of quality will mean supporting a sector that is diverse, thoughtful and innovative. In order to prioritise funding for higher-quality early childhood education over lower-quality early childhood education at all times, enhanced performance reporting systems and professional development and education will be required.

Our proposed policy direction is a continuation of support for high quality early childhood education. We recommend that Government acknowledges that supporting high-quality early childhood education for all children is an effective way to increase both economic productivity and child, family and community well-being. As explained in Part One, the investment case for early childhood education is strong. Alongside this, we think it is vital that the issue of wasted funds on poor-quality services is addressed. The evidence is strong that poor-quality early childhood education damages some children.

In particular, we think careful consideration of proper standards of care for under two-year-olds is called for. We consider the current ratio of one adult to five children to be too high for optimal child outcomes, but we recognise the fiscal constraints under which Government currently operates. We therefore recommend a ratio of one adult to four under two-year-olds should be regulated. We are pleased that the Minister of Education has acknowledged the need to improve this ratio, and note that this ratio is already considered to be ‘best practice’ by the early childhood education sector, and many services already implement it.

The Taskforce supports the Office of the Children’s Commissioner’s recent recommendations regarding ratios, as discussed above, and group size[14] in the medium- to long-term, but we note that interim targets may be required while the sector transitions to the future state envisioned in this report – a continually improving, professionally-led sector. For example, we note that there is currently no policy position on maximum group size. We recommend that Government and the sector work collaboratively to determine the benefits for children of reducing maximum group sizes (both for under and over two year-olds); assess the comparative cost-effectiveness of any proposed changes to current regulations; and determine the feasibility of requiring all services to report to parents on their effective group sizes. We consider this last and other related issues in Essay 9: Improving Licensing Processes and Performance Reporting.

We also recommend retaining the current un-regulated goal of 80% of all staff in teacher-led, centre-based early childhood education services being registered teachers, and strengthening it by regulating it (the current regulated minimum is 50%). We think that the remaining 20% of staff in services should be able to include staff in study, or staff with other expertise, such as health professionals or those with fluency in a language other than English. In addition, we recommend that incentives should be developed for services to employ more than 80% of their staff as qualified and registered early childhood education teachers, should they wish to do so. This keeps the emphasis on the highest quality possible.

Some of our recommendations are costly but, in our view, they represent valuable, evidence-based investments that may be reached via stages. Mechanisms for ensuring that they are affordable in the current climate, and that costs are borne fairly, are discussed in Essay 2: Reprioritising Government Expenditure and Essay 3: Reforming Funding Mechanisms.

Anticipated Outcomes of the Policy Change

Ensuring that funding encourages the highest possible quality of services will have some positive consequences for the overall early childhood education sector in New Zealand. Among other things:

• aiming for high-quality services means we will use government funds efficiently , as research universally finds that good outcomes arise only from good quality early childhood education, and that funding poor-quality early childhood education can have little effect on promoting good outcomes but can even lead to poor outcomes
• aiming for high-quality services will also encourage cultural diversity and ensure access for all, because integral parts of quality are responsiveness to parents’ and families’ needs and acknowledgement of diversity
• defining quality broadly will encourage sector collaboration and promote innovation across the sector because this will make clear that parents, services and communities can contribute to quality in new ways that may translate to additional future funding, as the value of quality early childhood education to the country receives greater public acknowledgement and support.

Cost Considerations

The most recent cost calculated of funding teacher-led, centre-based services to have up to 100% qualified, registered teachers within the current funding policy is around $110 million per annum. The cost of reducing ratios for under twos is about $50 million per annum: note, however, that this may not be the cost in the new funding system because it may provide different incentives. Our funding system, set out in Essay 3: Reforming Funding Mechanisms, is deliberately designed to be fiscally neutral, if necessary. Overall, it is important to note that these costs are based on current assumptions about teacher pay and the mechanism used to calculate costs by Government. They may, therefore, be low, given the current trend toward increased provisions for under-two year olds.

A short-term investigation into group sizes and quality for children under two can be achieved within business-as-usual activities in the Ministry of Education.

Further, long-term research of the kind we envisage in recommendation 6 is costly to do properly. However, this research could be included within existing projects, such as Growing Up in New Zealand, or carried out within the Ministry of Education’s existing research baseline.

The Change Process

A more detailed discussion of the phases and rationale for phasing referred to in this section can be found in Part One under Leading Change Processes.

Some of the key recommendations from this essay will be challenging for the sector.Noting that, currently, 67% of all staff across the country are qualified, registered early childhood education teachers, there will be some way to go before Government is able to establish the recommended minimum benchmark of 80% teachers, and improve ratios for children under two to 1:4. We note in particular the difficulty Pasifika and Māori immersion services have recruiting and retaining appropriately qualified staff.

We therefore recommend that the exact deadlines for these items are determined on the basis of strong analytical advice as to their achievability. We estimate that, alongside the other changes recommended by this report, the best time to consider introducing these measures will be in phase three of the change process. This will give services time to prepare, and receive support if necessary.

The proposed incentives for improving the quality of services by employing more qualified, registered teachers could be introduced with the new funding system, at the start of phase three.

However, we consider an immediate start can, and must, be made on further measurement of the quality of early childhood education in New Zealand. The design and delivery of this can begin in phase one.

Figure 2: Domains of influence and outcomes of early childhood education

References

1. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development. Cambridge, MA: Center on the Developing Child at Harvard; Heckman, J. J. (2006b). Skill Formation and the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged Children. Science, 312, 1900–1902 and Cunha, F. & Heckman, J. J. (2007). The Technology of Skill Formation. American Economic Review, 97(2), 31-47.

2. As theorised by Bowlby in a large body of work – see bibliography– and others such as Stern, D. (1977). The first relationship: infant and mother. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

3. Mooney, A., Cameron, C., Candappa, M., McQuail, S., Moss, P. & Petrie, P. (2003). Early years and childcare international evidence project. London: DfCFS. Referenced in Penn, H. (2009). Early childhood education and care: Key lessons from research for policy makers. Brussels: European Commission, p32.

4. Mitchell, L., Wylie, C. & Carr, M. (2008). Outcomes of Early Childhood Education: A Literature Review, p5.

5. Mitchell, L., Wylie, C. & Carr, M. (2008). Outcomes of Early Childhood Education: A Literature Review; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2006). Starting strong II. Early childhood education and care. Paris: OECD; Smith, A. B., Grima, G., Gaffney, M., Powell, K., Masse, L. & Barnett, S. (2000). Strategic research initiative literature review: Early childhood education. Wellington: Ministry of Education, p9.

6. Barnett, S. W. (2008). Preschool Education and Its Lasting Effects: Research and Policy Implications. Boulder and Tempe: Education and the Public Interest Center and Education Policy Research Unit, p5.

7. From 1 July 2011.

8. Dalli, C. E., White, J., Rockel, J., Duhn, I., Buchanan, E., Davidson, S., Ganly, S., Kus, L. & Wang, B. (2011). Quality early childhood education for under-two year olds: What should it look like? A literature review. Wellington: Ministry of Education p9.

9. Mitchell, L., Meagher-Lundberg, P., Mara, D., Cubey, P. & Whitford, M. (forthcoming). Locality-based Evaluation of Pathways to the Future: Ngā Huarahi Arataki: Integrated report 2004, 2006 and 2009. Wellington: Ministry of Education.

10. Caroll-Lind, J. and Angus, J. (2011). Through their lens: an inquiry into non-parental education and care of infants and toddlers. Wellington: Office of the Children’s Commissioner.

11. Source: Ministry of Education data.

12. Dalli, C. E. et al. (2011). Quality early childhood education for under-two year olds: What should it look like? A literature review.

13. Graph developed by Council for Early Childhood Development. (2010). The Science of Early Child Development. www.council.ecd.ca. Mustard, J.F. & McCain, M.N. (1999) Reversing the Real Brain Drain: Early Years Study, Final Report. Toronto: ON: Queen’s Printer for Ontario; Shonkoff, J.P. & Phillips, D.A. (2000). From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

14. Caroll-Lind, J. & Angus, J. (2011). Through their lens: an inquiry into non-parental education and care of infants and toddlers.